Applied Entrepreneurship and Continuing Research in Ecopreneurship

 Applied Entrepreneurship and Continuing Research in Ecopreneurship 

 Literature Review, by Mahmud Yussop,19/11/07.

Introduction 

This literature survey on entrepreneurship is carried out based on the wider concept of environmentalism. The wave of environmentalism has over the last three decades impinged on many sentiments be it political, economic, ethical, technological or on philosophical fronts. However, as a social movement, it has gained admission into mainstream debate only in the tail- end years of the last century. In this new millennium , environmentalism enters mainstream on a broader, deeper and more sophisticated level ( Kotler,P. et al,2003,pg.583) Entrepreneurship also rode on this wave as it capitalises on a growing interest of newfound wealth in the form of green businesses and all the sustainable wealth it offers. This paper will track on the best role entrepreneurs could play, mainly in their capacity to implement what are for many merely dreams of green gold. It will later attempt to pull out the studies on the development of entrepreneurship , both theory and practice from the main body of entrepreneurial literature. But the emphasis will be on its applied aspect, which emerged only from 1980’s onwards (Filion, 1998).This is in reflection of the true worth of an entrepreneur, they walk the talk. Over the course of the environmental movement, our original concept of the heroic leader as entrepreneur will be altered as we scan the trials and triumphs of those individuals who profess to do business more in tune with the environment and then towards other creatures, not necessarily human. The individual mission enters into a bigger stage as the new millenium enfolds, that is the human mission, pushed by the silently growing catastrophe of climatic change, the early warnings of which are felt all over the world today and recognised by the protective eyes of socially responsible governments and organisations. This paper will also outline the growth of environmentalism and how the older concepts of entrepreneurship became altered along the way to incorporate newer concepts of entrepreneurship like green entrepreneurship or ecopreneurship. Form this changing scenario, the paper will then extract significant similarities and differences between entrepreneurship in general and ecopreneurship in particular. The relevant questions that will be used as guide to the discussion herein will be as follows: What are the key factors of success as a green entrepreneur? What theories have been churned out in the  entrepreneurial research that are of relevance in our understanding of this critical factor of production besides labour, capital and land? Is entrepreneurship trainable or is it a scarcity found only in one’s traits? What is the future of ecopreneurship? The paper concludes with a positive note in that the thrust of ecopreneurship will be increasingly felt when communities the world over are faced with economic survival and for businesses to meet those needs in more sustainable ways.

Literature Review

What makes an entrepreneur tick? The practice of entrepreneurship is as old as human civilisation or even earlier as they begin to carry out external trade. As can be seen from the Malaysian experience, the trading companies like the British East India Company had special privileges granted under the royal charter to undertake business and profit from it over hundreds of years from our resource rich land. With the advent of industrialisation in Britain and Europe colonial powers began a big push overseas for raw materials and new markets. The colonial rulers then, worked hand in hand with local business owners or enterprising individuals. It was only after democratic principles were introduced that that the concept of free trade and fair trade began to be adopted by modern governments. Democracy opened the flood gates of commercial enterprise and entrepreneurship became an alternative route in society for any individual of any colour or creed and strata of society to become rich or wealthy. In reflection to wealth accumulation, Ronen commented: “The capability of continued wealth accumulation commands power and work towards the attainment of other attributes towards the attainment of other attributes essential to the entrepreneur: independence, prestige, freedom from outside control and more”.(Ronen,Joshua,1983,pg.150) The pioneer of classical economics, Adam Smith using documentary evidence traced the engine of industrial growth to the production line and the working of the manufacturing systems . He argued that at the individual level, the economic mechanism was that of self- interest. In animals self interest is self indulgent. Humans have the capacity to reason, thus among humans there can be found a rational or enlightened self-interest which enabled them to trade or exchange. Trade or exchange permits well-being.( Richards, Tudor,1999,pg.174) The prime motive of entrepreneurship was and is today, making money. While for many the image of successful entrepreneurs is associated with their assets, power, reputation ,prestige and glory are to be envied, their stories are the all too familiar ‘rags-to-riches’ life episodes. Intertwined in the entrepreneurship is a lot of hardship (entrepreneur`hard’ship). For this reason alone , entrepreneurs are a select breed of people who wrestled all the odds, failures, setbacks and weaknesses to triumph at their goals. “Whether perceived by others as worthy or not-at some point in their journey, they embrace their dream for better or for worse. It is the only journey of lasting success”. 3 (Porras,et al. 2007,pg.90) It is this entrepreneurial perspective or mindset that will “liberates her, creates endless amounts of energy, and increases her financial, emotional, and mental capital exponentially. In the end,there is significant equity to show for her investment. The enterprise run by itself in the hands of professional management. It has real value in the world. The entrepreneur is now free to invest what she’s learned in another enterprise, depending on what she wishes to do with the rest of her life”( Gerber,2005,pg.6) The `Body Shop’, started by Anita Roddick and her husband in 1976, has made a cause for her natural products business. Body Shop’s business declaration of “Reason for Being” was the pursuit of social and environmental change...People in the third-world villages were asked to supply her with the natural ingredients she needed – a ` form of trade not aid’. ( Bolton & Thompson,2000,pg.37) In her very words ”To me the desire to create and to have control over your own life, irrespective of the politics and the time or the social structures, was very much part of the human spirit. What I did not fully realise was that work could open the doors to my heart” ( Gerber, Michael, 2005,pg.36). From the examples above, entrepreneurship has been the engine generating tremendous growth of the business sector as well as propelling the rapid expansion of the social sector. With ecopreneurship it is envisioned that enlightened self-interest is raised to a level of global well being.

 Early Research 

The word `entrepreneur’ is of French origin, literally meaning `contractor’ or `undertaker ‘.  The Chambers Everyday Dictionary (1977) refers to an entrepreneur as one who undertakes a business enterprise, especially on that involves risk. The literature survey on entrepreneurship emphasised in this paper revolves around the business world or context, in contrast to social entrepreneurs who may excel in non-profit organisations or endeavours. Early research on the characteristics of entrepreneurs dated back to the early 1900’s with the theoretical work of Max Weber( 1904) and Joseph Schumpeter (1934,1947). Max Weber expounded on a developmental model for industrious individuals. Schumpeter constructed a listing of characteristics of individuals engaged in entrepreneurial ventures. In 1934, Schumpter talked about “ creative destruction ”: old ways of doing things are transformed, or overtaken, when enterprising individuals wreak change in business systems. As agents of change, entrepreneurs bring innovation, adaptation and new ideas into the market-based economy. Nowadays, entrepreneurship is also applied to the corporate entity and thus are reffered to as corporate entrepreneurs or intrapreneurs or to social organisations as social entrepreneurs, who attempt to solve community problems in innovative ways. The early works of McClelland and his associate in the 1950’s was based on the traditional personality models of the time. McClelland and Winter(1969) argued that the achievement- motivation which affected human behaviour was the cause of economic development and success in economic activity.( McClelland& Winter,1969,pgs.18- 19) . 

 Earlier research on entrepreneurship have centred on theories that were based on older theories of social science because as a relatively new discipline, it had to borrow theoretical foundations from other disciplines including psychology, sociology, economics, and mathematics.(Robinson,Peter,pg.1) The various classic assumptions on which the psychological perspectives of an entrepreneur are formed were: 

 ·0 Hard psychic realism , where entrepreneurs have certain entrepreneurial personality type, or minimum list of entrepreneurial traits or characteristics. The psychological make-up is relatively stable over time and situations.

 ·1 Demonstrative reality , where entrepreneurial traits are real and are provable, by using the right scale or instrument we can measure the right characteristics with empirical data 

-2 Extrospection, where objectivity is reasonable and desirable of entrepreneurial research

·3 Reductionism , where the study of small isolated traits or characteristics of entrepreneurs will help us to explain ( predict and control) the behaviours of the individual entrepreneur, and beyond that his or her venture and even economic development e.g. need of achievement 

 ·4 Passive mind ,where the entrepreneur is a passive entity affected by his experiences, e.g. entrepreneurial characteristics gained through early childhood experiences by a loving mother and domineering father or close relationship with an entrepreneur role model. 

One subject of entrepreneurship research that has a wide acceptance today is the concept of ‘ locus of control’ construct in entrepreneurship. Earlier theories, about the ‘entrepreneurial character’, led to the belief that the entrepreneur was a person who firmly believed in personal control over his or her own destiny. However later researchers found out that the Rotter Scale (1954) to measure the ‘generalised expectancy regarding locus of control was multi-dimensional, not uni-dimensional(Robinson,Peter,2001,pg.3). The major weakness of the classic assumptions -based research was that the reason that researchers in the 1980’s changed their focus to the behaviourial approach. They found that earlier research on personality or traits approach lacked predictive utility and assuming a static state of existence. Personality being considered as a solid state. The call for an examination of paradigms and assumptions underlying the theories and methodologies was met by Carsrud and fellow researchers in 1986 and 1989. They stated that “ the advancement of entrepreneurship research has been inhibited by the indiscriminate transfer of methodologies and theories from other disciplines,” and cited the assumption of stable characteristics as one of the four possible reasons for the overall disappointing results in adapting psychological theories to entrepreneurship.( Robinson Peter2001,pg.4).  In 1998  Filion noted that the study of entrepreneurship exploded and was assimilated into every social science discipline. Thus the trend of research branched into two main directions: a) Entrpreneurship, the applied aspect and b) entreprenology, the theoretical aspect. 

Appllied Entrepreneurship

Newer research are already exploring along the lines of assumptions that are a direct reaction on these classical assumptions, thereby making them more in touch with reality. The next group of research on entrepreneurship have fallen on three main streams; (a) the results of entrepreneurship, (b) the causes of entrepreneurship and (c) entrepreneurial management. (James Austin et al,2006.p.4). For instance, Stevenson ‘s idea of entrepreneurship, based on an earlier model by Sahiman(1996), stresses on the creation of a dynamic fit among four interrelated components: the people, the context , the deal and the opportunity. Because the elements are interdependent and are situationally determined, the entrepreneur must manage the fit and must adapt continuously to new circumstances over time.( James Austin, et al .2006.p.5) Others like Robinson and Shaver (1995) questioned the`paradigmatic’ assumptions of earlier research. This search for new assumptions have found fresh air in the work of Mitchell and James (1989) when they proposed: “A new view that stresses the important attributes of people, their contexts, and their interactions. First the person is seen as fitting into an environment. Second, both the person and the environment change over time. Third, changes in the person can cause changes in the environment and changes in the environment can cause changes in the people. Fourth, people are both active and reactive with respect to these changes. Fifth, people’s views of their past and future influence whether they are active or reactive and how much or how little they change. Thus what emerges is a human who is psychologically and behaviourally, interacting in a dynamic way with a changing environment. For the person, there is both stability and change, there is (pro) active and reactive behaviour, (and) there are abilities and acquired skills that emerge.” (Mitchell & James,1989,pg.147) There is thus a large scope of research that can be done using assumptions consistent with the entrepreneurial enterprise than just theory-driven. Two examples of the new paradigm shift in entrepreneurial research are a) attitude theory and 2) social cognition theory. In attitude theory, a person’s attitude is found to be dynamic. Thus an individual who has been an entrepreneur all his life and identifies with that life style may continue behaving in an entrepreneurial fashion unless some catastrophic event, such as bankruptcy or death of someone very close, causes a fundamental change in attitudes related to entrepreneurship. However this field is slow in its progress because as noted by Hornaday, the need to “ develop more effective means of measuring entrepreneurial characteristics”( Robinson,2001.pg11). As regards cognition theory, it considers that individuals exists within a  total situation or configuration of forces describes by two pairs of factors: one being cognition and motivation, and the other being the person in the situation. Placed in a situation, the individual’s information processing is thought to be associated with individual decision making within a total situation. As an extension to this social cognition theory is the expert information processing theory. According to this theory, experts possess knowledge structures or scripts about particular domains that allow them to significantly (two standard deviations) outperform non-experts who do not have and use such structured knowledge.

Recent Research : What is an entrepreneur? 

This question is better answered in observing what entrepreneurs do. “ An entrepreneur is a person who habitually creates and innovates to build something of recognised value around perceived opportunities”( Bolton&Thompson,2000). In the general business sector, three levels of entrepreneurship are to be found. The bottom level is the enterprising person who creates a small or micro-business. In the middle level is the entrepreneur, who creates a significant business. At the top of the pyramid is the growth entrepreneur, one who creates a sustained high-growth business. (pg.17,Bolton&Thompson,2000) Whatever the conditions entrepreneurs see themselves in, they require more than just “...merely energy and money. It does not arise out of blind faith, enthusiasm or luck, but requires individuals and organisations to embrace a cohesive process of planning and ideas development, the marshalling of resources, finance sourcing, the adoption of creative and innovative techniques and the taking of calculated risks.”(Schaper,2002,pg.27) Apparent in many research is the study of “person” in the make-up of the entrepreneur. It appears too that further stream in this line of research will be intensified though it might need to be set in a situational analysis. According to this standpoint, how situational conditions can be manipulated through, for instance, governance mechanisms or incentives systems, to encourage people to become more sensitive to possible opportunities for profit and to act on these value propositions.(Mitchell,et al 2007pg.13). In the true tradition of cognitive research for instance, more and more studies are undertaken to develop the “thinking-doing” link in entrepreneurial scholarship. It is argued that entrepreneurs are unique in that they think differently when making decisions resulting in wealth creation through the identification of market opportunities( Mitchell,et al,2007,pg.3) Thus the fundamental starting point: “ How do entrepreneurs think?”. It may well be that the “next generation “of entrepreneurial research may branch out to seek answers to the following questions: (Mitchell,et al,2007,pg.12)

 How do entrepreneurial individuals acquire their cognitive structures and contents?

Is one method of learning better than another in developing the cognitions, attitudes, and intentions of entrepreneurship? Do entrepreneurs pursuing noneconomic values ( instead or in addition to economic values) think about the their contexts differently? Do they formulate attitudes and intentions differently? How does a prior/existing mental model of competition influence subsequent thoughts about the kind of venture to create? Attitudes toward venturing? Intentions to venture? Enactments of these thoughts, attitudes and intentions? How do individuals in a venture team dynamically change their entrepreneurial cognitions, attitudes and intentions? How and to what effect do “affective experiences” inject a high emotion into the entrepreneurial cognition gestalt? To what extent is affect in entrepreneurship subject to reflection/meditation (i.e. cognitive appraisal) versus invoked with minimal stimulus( affect primacy) A further potent research inititative is in the field of meta-cognition. Metacognition refers to “thinking about thinking” and has been defined as “the ability to reflect upon, understand , and control one’s learning” ( Schraw & Dennison,1994). It is hoped in future that metacognitive thinking placed in context can “ lead to the creation of entrepreneurial expertise by facilitating the self-reflection, understanding, and control of one’s own entrepreneurial cognitions, thereby allowing individuals to alter their lives “ (Mitchell et al,2007,pg.14). In short entrepreneurs think-through their choices, commit on their decisions and relentlessly pursue their mission making that significant difference to their lives and to the lives of others. 

Is it mission? 

Being a staunch environmentalist, Yvon Chouinard‘s firm Patagogonia, Inc., a private company with current sales of over a quarter billion dollars, has its mission statement as “ to use business to find solutions to the environmental problems” . Further he adds that: “ We are not in business in the business to make a profit. We are not in the business to make a product. We’re in business to really change the way other companies operate.” His idea was to change the world and government inside out by changing the way business is done. (Porras et al, 2007,pg.97) . In this extreme example, successful entrepreneurs, don’t see a difference in making money and making the environment a better place. “ For enduring successful people, life is rarely a matter of either/or.”( Porras et al 2007,pg101) Further, he pointed out that “ ..enduring successful people ... don’t believe that the choice is between  serving a cause or serving themselves. They choose both. Moreover, for Builders, the genius of the AND is not a fifty-fifty deal; it is a hundred-hundred deal. The passion that get them up in the morning is just as much as about what turns them on as it is about what it does for others. Enduringly successful people have concluded that their commitment to the service of others is also in their selfinterest”( Porras et al, 2007,pg.101). The clear lesson from here is that , it is of no use to have a personal mission that works only for the individual player. For the growth entrepreneur to be succesful the environment and business should work in tandem with his compelling vision or mission statement.

Ecopreneurship

 In modern times, entrepreneurs however perpetually find themselves torn between achieving the firm‘s profit motives and the many interests of the stakeholders including their employees, customers and different governments in a global economy. Recent development in the rise of environmental activism will no doubt redefine the firm in ways that require them to resolve their uncontrolled growth as a goal of their profit-driven enterprises and an environmentally constrained world. (Richards,Deanna ,1997,pg.103). In this new millenium where commerce have to battle with ecology to build its wealth, an investigation into entrepreneurship is timely not so much as to understand its economic and social functions but more in its future role in sustaining a global environment conserved to sustain its survival. Herein lies the significance of entrepreneurship whether it be at an individual level, corporations or government. In the literature, entrepreneurship could then be present at every level of organisation e.g. intrapreneurship, corporate entrepreneurship or social entrepreneurship. Societal pressures are being felt everywhere in the world nowadays as regards to the environmental problems and actions to solve them. In the early 1990’s a survey of consumers was conducted by Roper Starch Worldwide. ( Laszlo,2003,p.51) It classified consumers in several countries with respect to their environmental attitudes and behaviours. The survey identified five categories of consumers: 

1- True blue greens are consumers who have ‘strong personal concerns about the nvironment, and they are convinced that individual actons can make a difference in helping to protect and improve the environment.’ 

2- Greenback greens express ‘ commitment to the environment by their willingness to pay significantly higher prices for green products. But , unlike the true-blue greens, they are not likely to get involved in proenvironment activities, such as recycling, that would consume much of their time’ 

3- Sprouts show ‘middling levels of concern about environmental problems, but their involvement in certain kinds of environmental activities are high’ 

4- Grousers are those customers who are ‘ relatively uninvolved in proenvironmental activities, and they justify their indifferene by citing factors beyond their control. By nature they tend to believe that environmental problems are caused by others and not themselves’ 

5- Basic browns make up the least environmentally active group. ‘While they might be concerned about pollution problems, they are convinced that their individual behaviour can’t make a differencein solving those prolems. Thus, unlike the grousers, they do not feel the need to rationalise their lack of effort'.

The Roper Starch study found, for instance in the United States that, true-blue greens grew from 11% to 20% between 1990 and 1993. On the other end of the spectrum, the basic browns grew from 28% to 35% over the same period. The results showed a growing segmentation of consumers who put environmental choices in deciding their consumption behaviour. In the hands of an entrepreneur, such values changes are fertile ground for innovative marketing processes and products , targeted not only at customers but companies ,partners, communities and institutions. The prevalence of environmental values serves as common ground and language for dialogue between shareholders and stakeholders. The business value of sustainability lays bare for the exploitation of ecopioneering individuals. “Going green” once thought as the sole preclude of the environmentalist and activists now finds company with big business. People have been talking about the world environmental crises since the 1980’s . However, the crucial technologies and tools existed in 2000, the will to act on them was not present( Heeks, 2001,pg.205) A special report on “Going Green: How Big Business Learned to Love the Environment” appeared in Newsweek, August 14, 2006 issue. The report highlighted on the Tesco story: “ It seems like a hippie entrepreneur’s dream come true: an ecostore with cash registers powered by rooftop wind turbines, skylights instead of light bulbs and photovoltaic solar cells on the roof to help power the baker’s oven. It’s so environmentally friendly that even the toilet water is collected from raindrops outside. Only this time is not a pipe dream of a fringe activist. The vision comes from Tesco, the world’s third largest retailer. Tesco is pumping #100 million into environmental technologies to reduce the amount of energy they use by 50%, compared with 2000 levels, by 2010. In addition to building 80 new ecostores across Britain over the next year- the greenest of which will be constructed of recycled materials and will burn food waste into electricity- they’re making small changes that could have big effects”(Emily Flynn Vencat,2006). For ecopreneurs, this “sea of change’ is a vast business opportunity. But is also requires a paradigmatic change in their environmental thinking and other stakeholders as well. This welcome change has a growing population of adherents and believers.

 On the business side, it is so much better when you can make money and at the same time save the world. Michael Porter’s seminal study, ‘Competitive Strategy: Techniques for Analyzing Industries and Competitors’ in 1980 has helped shift the meaning of business value away from ownership rights and resource access and towards industry structure. (Laszlo, 2003,pg.110). Value creation came to be seen in terms of the threat of new entrants and substitute products, negotiating power with buyers and suppliers, and industry rivalry. Now entrepreneurs will have to expand the value- creating universe to include an even broader array of stakeholders who contribute to the wealth-creating capabilities of the company. In this particular instance, entrepreneurs will envisage value-added businesses ranging from clean technologies to green living. What is required on the part of entrepreneurs is strategic focus on the sources of value (Laszlo,2003,pg.139). In the top rank of values is ‘working to change the regulatory environment, industry practices, or other rules of the game.’ This is matched against the‘business context’ as the strategic focus. However, only few have used this value creation as a way to drive new markets. Most entrepreneurs are happy to involve themselves with businesses that are at the lower rank of strategic focus, for example, risk mitigation and process cost reduction through eliminating waste and improving energy efficiencies products or technologies.(Laszlo,2003,pg.139) The dynamics of entrepreneurship and the challenges it posed to Europe for instance was the main subject of a “Green Paper: Entrepreneurship in Europe” published in 2003 by the Commission of the European Communities. It summed up entrepreneurship as “the mindset and process to create and develop economic activity by blending risk-taking, creativity and/or innovation with sound management, within a new or an existing organisation.”(Commission Report,2003,pg.6). Noting on the importance of entrepreneurship in creating jobs , boosting competitiveness among firms through improving efficiency and innovation, unlocking human potential in fulfilling higher needs such as self-actualisation ,freedom and independence and finally in driving and delivering wealth to the society, it was paramount to promote an entrepreneurial society. One way to help society appreciate entrepreneurship is showcasing successful projects through awards to young entrepreneurs. Other ways forward are by bringing down barriers to business development and growth, balancing the risks and rewards of entrepreneurship (e.g. Risk taking should be rewarded, rather than punished) and the development of a society that values entrepreneurship through education such as schools, universities, local communities, business organisations and the media.( Commission Report,2003).

What is an ecopreneur? 

Ecopreneurs are entrepreneurs who combine environmental awareness with business activities- in the drive to shift the basis of economic development towards a more environmentally – friendly basis (David Gibbs,2007). More significantly, research will weigh heavily on motivated reasoning, motivational orientations and situational cognition. The main difference between an entrepreneur and an eco -tag entrepreneur will emerge to answer basic questions like: How do individuals with personal motivations other than profit maximization perceive opportunity, apply decision logics,etc? How do entrepreneurs seeking a perpetuity-based performance ( good also to the social and natural environments) perceive opportunity, make decisions,etc? How do changes in the environment impact on the relative importance of different motive for recognizing and acting on opportunity? (Mitchell,et al,2007,pg.15). It has been suggested that deeply seated beliefs and belief structures act as anchor to the experiential essence of entrepreneurs.( Krueger,2007)

Future of Ecopreneurship 

The need for contributions to theory and practice is felt more pressing, sooner than later and for longer periods from now than shorter. This is because the age of industrialisation has come to an end in that uncontrolled commerce have begun to self-destruct itself. Ecologists asserted that if business continues its unabated expansion, it will destroy the world around it. Ecologist have constantly reminded us that we are crossing natural thresholds that we cannot see and violating deadlines that we do not recognize. In our situation today where demand has exceeded the sustainability yield of natural systems at the local level now is happening at the global level. Thus the magnitude of today’s ecological crisis. There is sufficient evidence to show now that a revolution is taking place in how private firms, across all economic sectors are dealing with the environmental impact of production and consumption. This revolution is akin to that experienced earlier when safety and quality became strategic concerns of most companies.( Richards, Deanna(ed), 1977,pg.30). The stage is thus set for companies to play the green game better by improving both their competitive position and the environmental quality of the planet. Among the implications is that businesses must learn to transform commerce to a restorative undertaking. This idea have been envisioned in “ The Ecology of Commerce”(Paul Hawken,1993) that advocated incentives that will redefine the basis on which companies make decisions albeit short term gains of making money and selling things. For instance, business can be built on an ecological model. In nature, waste equals food, all growth is driven by solar energy, and the overall well-being of the system depends on diversity and thrives on difference. When applied the model would ensure that all waste has value to other modes of production so that everything is either reclaimed, reused, or recycled. Of course the responsibility of developing this restorative economy rests on the shoulders of business and thus the new breed of ecopreneurs. More refined research on entrepreneurship need to be carried out on two important issues: Does it represent a shift to a new business paradigm—leading to ecological  modernisation or just the exploitation of niche markets. Are businesses adapting to environmental concerns as a means to create new revenue streams. With margins being squeezed in about all facets of business, green products are not only necessary for business but also necessary for business expansion. (Newsweek,5/11/07) In reality many are in transitional, stuck in the middle. Success for entrepreneurs can be very elusive. Those who are stuck in the middle, will need legitimacy. Until they are confirmed socially, entrepreneurs may appear to be cranks or misfits – once confirmed they appear visionary” (Downing,2005:199) On the other end of the spectrum, there is a growing collection of research that seems to suggest that ecopioneering individuals seek to combine environmental awareness with entrepreneurial action, reflecting a shift to ecological modernisation in action. Concern over climate change and resource scarcity will have influences on economic policies and behaviour. This have the effect of opening up opportunities for ecopreneurial activities to move into mainstream of economic activities.(Gibbs, 2007,pg.2) These researches , top among them Michael Schaper fromUniversity of Curtin, Austalia, said that "The adoption of environmentally responsible business practices can, conceiveably, open up an additional range of opportunities for entrepreneurs. These include , among other things, the development of new products and services, improvements to the efficiency of existing firms, new methods of marketing and the reconfiguration of existing business models and practices”(Schaper,2007,pg.27) Moreover, it is noted by Schaper that in a market based economy, entrepreneurs can act as “pull factor” that entices other firms to proactively go green, in contrast to the “push factors” of government regulation and stake holders or lobby-group pressures. The main barrier in using existing technologies to identified problems is the corporate manager,” who sees dealing with the environment impacts only in terms of its costs or as a difficult trade-off between design and management”(Richards,Deanna(ed)1997,pg.30). Companies that initiate changes towards sustainable practices will have a head start and be able to position themselves strategically than suffering the consequences of it through the actions of their competitors. If we look at the Malaysian situation, there is much scope for it to join this latest trend because it has the tropical forest to show to the world that here ecology has always been practised and preserved, and with its modern emphasis on bio-diversity, it is ready to harvest the fruits of research in bio-technology. Furthermore, its climate, soil, land and a potentially large rural population could become a rich human resource for subcontracting ventures in organic farming, herbal and natural foods supplies. What is required of the government is to introduce eco-tax on those using fossil fuels and provide incentives for organic growers, renewable energy products ( e.g. solar) and training the farmers on ecopreneurial and technical mindset( Shukor Omar,2006,pg.8).

In this globalisation era, it is worthwhile to note the warnings of a futurist, John Nasbitt. He stated that with globalisation, hierarchical structures will give way for informal networks (Crainer & Dearlove,2003,pg.150).  This is of prime importance for the entrepreneur because when everyone hears about everything at the same time, everyone else hears about it. Thus speed is critical as a competitive weapon. Economies of scale are giving way to economies of scope, the latter being a mix of finding right size for synergy, market flexibility and speed. In ‘Global Paradox’, Nasbitt speculated that “ The bigger the world economy, the more powerful it smallest players”. Nasbitt examination of future trends give tremendous openings for individuals to create small businesses in generating the wealth of the future. Nasbitt was also quoted by Rowan Gibson in ‘Rethinking the Future’, ( Gibson,Rowand,199 when he said: ‘Small companies, right down to the individual, can beat big bureaucratic companies ten out of ten times. Unless big companies reconstitute themselves as a collection of small companies, they will just continue to go out of business. It’s the small companies who are creating the global economy’. This sentiment has been echoed by Kenichi Ohmae when he wrote:`At the cash register, you don’t care about the country of origin or country of residence’. In a different vein he rejected the popular thinking in the West about the Japanese entrepreneurial thinking of being irrational and flexible. To him Japanese entrepreneurs are creative, intuitive and rational, a ‘single , naturally-talented strategist with an idiosyncratic mode of thinking in which company, customers, and competition merge in a dynamic interaction out of which a comprehensive set of objectives and plans for action eventually crytallizes’(Crainer&Dearlove,2003,pg.154) Kenichi Ohmae’s work was illustrative of the evidence of strategic thinking in entrepreneurship practised by peoples from the Eastern tradition.

The Ecotopian Vision 

The scope of environmental or ecological problems are happening now on a massive scale. This raises the question of will? Do government have the will to act on this the creation of whole cities as an ecological hub? Recent developments, if it is an indication of the future trend is already happening in United Arab Emirates. In waking up to the challenge, the government is spending an initial allocation of #3oo billion in developing the future ecocity is already in the making (www.SustaibableBusiness.com.,2007,19 Oct.).  The first world’s first green city is being built at Masdar, Abu Dhabi. This city will be a living testimony to the possibility of sustainable cities. This high density city will be completely free of cars and their emissions; a world model of energy conservation with zero waste . Cycling and walking will be the most common means of travel. According to the master planners, personal rapid transit system will proved flexible and comfortable alternative to private cars. Special economic zones will attract business and commercial partners focussed on advanced energy systems and technologies from around the world, from start-ups to corporation. To sustain further this ecological living style, there will be set up in the city a university education and research center, which will offer Masters and Phd programs in science and sustainability. Research will be directed to tackle mankind’s most pressing problems, climate change and truly sustainable human development. Already research to support such grand ideas are done. In support of this John H Lawton, and Gibson,Rowan, an ecologist who won the Japan ( for scientific contribution to mankind in 2004) have developed a theoretical analysis using mathematical models , he was able to show that nature conservation efforts aimed at nature as a whole are far more active at preserving diversity than conservation efforts which concentrate on separating nature into small elements( NST,30.6.04 )

Conclusion 

The future of ecopreneurship is on a trajectory of global proportion and the convergence of global warming will develop a massive global market for the green products and services. Ecopreneurs do themselves good by doing what is right for society at large and the environment. Their presence will be very much demanded as the world needs to solve the problems of global warming and sustainability. Future research therefore will have to be in tune with reality and though theory -driven, its assumptions will have to incorporate paradigmatic shift in tune with the entrepreneurial enterprise and environmental realities.

References 

Journal and Articles:

 Austin, James, Stevenson, Howard & Skillern, Jane Wei- (2006) Social and Commercial Entrepreneurship: same or Different of Both? Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, Vol. 30 Issue 1, pgs 1-22.

Caldwell, Cam, Bischoff, Sheri J & Ranjan, Karri (2002) the four empires: A paradigm for ethical leadership. Journal of Business Ethics, Dordrecht, Vol. 36, Iss.1/2 Part ½, pp. 153-163 

Downing’s (2005) the social construction of entrepreneurship: Narrative and dramatic processes in the co-production of organisations and identities, Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, March, 185-204.

 Egri, Carolyn P & Herman, Susan (2000) Leadership in the North American environmental sector: Values, leadership styles, and context of environmental leaders and their organisations. Academy of Management Journal, Mississippi State, Aug 2000.

 Gibbs, David (2007) The Role of Ecopreneurs in Developing a Sustainable Economy. In First World Symposium

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Inkson, Kerr & Moss, AstonT (1993) Transformational Leadership –is it universally applicable? Leadership and Organisation Development Joiurnal, BradfordVo.14, Issue 4.

Laroche, Michael, Bergeson, Jasmin & Forleo, Guido Barbaro (2001) Targeting consumers who are willing to pay more for environmentally friendly products. The Journal of Consumer Marketing, Santa Barbara, Vol.18, Iss.6, pg.503, 18 pgs.

 Mitchel, Ronald K, Busenitz, Lowell & et al (2007) The Central Question in Entrepreneurial Cognition Research. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, January 2007.

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Mumford, Alan (1995) Putting Learning Styles to Work: An integrated framework. Industrial and Commercial training, Guisborough, Vol.27, Issue 8, Pg. 8.

 Robinson, Peter B. (2001) Behind the Research: Metatheoretical Foundations in Entrepreneurship Research. Entrepreneurhip and Innovation Area. University of Calgary.

Ronen, Joshua, (1983) “Some insights into the Entrepreneurial Process.” In The Entrepreneurial Process, Joshua Ronen (ed.) Price Institute for Entrepreneurial Studies, Lexington, DC

Rowlands, Ian H.,Parker,Paul & Scott, aniel ( 2002 ) Consumer perceptions of ‘green power’.The Journal of Consumer Marketing, Santa Barbara, Vol.19,Iss.2/3 pg.112,18 pgs

Sarros, James C & Santora, Joseph C (2001) the transformational-transactional leadership model in practice. Leadership & Organisational Deveopment Journal, Bradford, Vol 22, Issue 7/8, 

Schaper, Michael (2002) the Essence of Ecopreneurship. GMI 38, summer 2002. 

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Books:

 Arie de Geus (1999) The Living Company, Nicholas Brealey Publishing, London.

 Bolton, Bill and Thompson, John (2000)The Entrepreneur in Focus. International Thomson Business Press.UK. 

Collins,Jim (2001) Good to Great .HarperCollins Publishers Inc. New York.

Crainer,Stuart and Dearlove,Des. (2003) The Ultimate Business Guru Book. Capstone Publishing Limited,Oxford.UK. 

Gerber,Michael E. (2006) E-Myth Mastery. HarperCollins Publishers, New York. 

Goleman, Daniel,Boyatzis,R.& McKee,A. (2002)The New Leaders, Time Warner Paperbacks, London.

 Heeks, Alan ( 2001) The Natural Advantage ; Seven Principles For High Performance. Nichoas Brealey Publishing , London. 

Holliday, Charles O.,Schmidheiny, Stephen & Watts, Philip (2002) Walking the talk: The business case for sustainable development. Greenlea Publishing Limited,UK. 

Laszlo, Chris (2003) The Sustainable Company. Island Press, London. 

Leeb,Stephen and Asrathy,Glen C. (2007) The Coming Economic Collapse. Warner Business Books, New York, USA. 

McClelland,D.C., &Winter,D.G.(1969) Motivating Economic Achievement. The Free Press,New York. 

Nasnan, Jajuli(2006) Melahirkan Jutawan Melalui Sektor Pertanian. Anzagain Sdn Bhd,Selangor,Malaysia

Ohmae, Kenichi ( 1983 ) The Mind of the Strategist. McGraw-Hill Book Company,US.

 Porras,Jerry,Emery,S & Thompson,M.(2007) Success Built to Last. Penguin Group. New York.

 Richards,Deanna J. (1997 ) The Industrial Green Game. National Academy Press,Washington.DC.

 Rickards,Tudor.(1999) Creativity and the Management of Change. Blackwell Publishers Ltd. Oxford,UK. 

Schumpeter,J.(1934) The Theory of Economic Development. Harvard University Press,Cambridge,MA. 

Shukor, Omar(2006) Malay Business: Revivalism Through Entrepreneurship. PelandukPublications(M)Sdn Bhd, Subang Jaya, Selangor,Malaysai.

 Ziauddin, Sardar (1988) Islamic Futures : The Ideas to Come. Pelanduk Publications(M)Sdn Bhd,Petaling Jaya , Selangor,Malaysia. 

Ziauddin, Sardar(ed)(1988) The Touch of Midas: Science, values and environment in Islam and the West. Pelanduk Publications,Petaling Jaya, Selangor,Malaysia.

Internet:

 http://www.sustainablebusiness.com

 http://www.SustainableValuePartners.com 

Reports:

Commission of the European Communities,(2003) Green Paper: Entrepreneurship in Europe.Brussels.

 Newspapers and Magazines:

Newsweek,August 14,2006. Going Green: How Big Companies Learned to Love the Environment.pgs.38-43 

New Straits Times,30/6/04

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